Squamous cell carcinoma: a comprehensive review on causes, clinical presentation, diagnosis, prognosis, and prevention

Abstract

Background: Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is one of the most common skin cancers and represents a significant public health concern. Its development is strongly associated with cumulative exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation from sunlight and tanning beds. Objective: This review summarizes the epidemiology, risk factors, clinical features, diagnosis, prognosis, and prevention of cutaneous SCC.

Methods: Current evidence concerning SCC etiology, risk factors, clinical presentation, diagnostic approaches, prognostic factors, and preventive strategies was reviewed and synthesized.

Results: Chronic UV exposure is a major risk factor for SCC. Additional factors include fair skin, previous sunburn, immunosuppression, and inherited disorders that impair protection against UV-induced skin damage. Clinically, SCC commonly presents as raised, scaly, crusted, erythematous, ulcerated, or tender lesions. Biopsy with histopathological examination remains essential for definitive diagnosis, while dermoscopy and imaging may assist in selected cases. Prognosis is influenced by tumor stage, metastasis, tumor characteristics, and overall patient health. Early diagnosis is generally associated with favorable outcomes, whereas metastatic disease and immunocompromise are linked to poorer prognosis. Prevention primarily involves UV protection, protective clothing, sunscreen use, shade-seeking, self-skin examination, and regular dermatological surveillance.

Conclusion: SCC remains an important dermatological and public health problem. Early recognition, appropriate diagnosis, sun-protective behaviors, and routine skin surveillance can reduce disease burden and improve clinical outcomes. Patient education and preventive care remain essential components of SCC management.